Mecanismos de patogenia en la malaria por Plasmodium falciparum
Resumen
Se presentan los mecanismos patogénicos más conocidos en la infección por Plasmodium falciparum durante la fase eritrocitaria y extraeritrocitaria. La obstrucción vascular, explicada por los fenómenos de secuestro de glóbulos rojos parasitados y la formación de rosetas, mediados por diversos ligandos y receptores endoteliales, además de los procesos inflamatorios instaurados ante la presencia del parásito, son aspectos centrales en la patogenia de la malaria que permiten explicar los procesos de disfunción, daño y muerte celular en diferentes órganos.
A partir de eventos como la lesión y la destrucción de eritrocitos, hepatocitos y células endoteliales, la pérdida de integridad del endotelio y la activación de promotores de daño celular y de apoptosis, se explican alteraciones como el aumento de la permeabilidad vascular, la hipoxia y el metabolismo anaerobio, que conducen tanto a lesiones localizadas en órganos como cerebro y pulmón, como a un estado de acidosis generalizada y falla multisistémica.
Descargas
Referencias bibliográficas
Newton CR, Krishna S. Severe falciparum malaria in children: Current understanding of pathophysiology and supportive treatment. Pharmacol Ther. 1998;79:1-53.
Baird JK. Neglect of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Trends Parasitol. 2007;23:533-9.
Miller LH, Baruch DI, Marsh K, Doumbo OK. The pathogenic basis of malaria. Nature. 2002;415:673-9.
Riganti M, Pongponratn E, Tegoshi T, Looareesuwan S, Punpoowong B, Aikawa M. Human cerebral malaria in Thailand: A clinico-pathological correlation. Immunol Lett. 1990;25:199-205.
Haldar K, Murphy SC, Milner DA, Taylor TE. Malaria: Mechanisms of erythrocytic infection and pathological correlates of severe disease. Annu Rev Pathol. 2007;2:217-49.
Sherman IW, Eda S, Winograd E. Cytoadherence and sequestration in Plasmodium falciparum: Defining the ties that bind. Microbes Infect. 2003;5:897-909.
Urban BC, Roberts DJ. Malaria, monocytes, macrophages and myeloid dendritic cells: Sticking of infected erythrocytes switches off host cells. Curr Opin Immunol. 2002;14:458-65.
Rowe JA, Claessens A, Corrigan RA, Arman M. Adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes to human cells: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Expert Rev Mol Med. 2009;11:e16.
Heddini A, Pettersson F, Kai O, Shafi J, Obiero J, Chen Q, et al. Fresh isolates from children with severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria bind to multiple receptors. Infect Immun. 2001;69:5849-56.
Afonso Nogueira P, Wunderlich G, Shugiro Tada M, d’Arc Neves Costa J, Jose Menezes M, Scherf A, et al. Plasmodium falciparum: Analysis of transcribed var gene sequences in natural isolates from the Brazilian Amazon region. Exp Parasitol. 2002;101:111-20.
Newbold C, Warn P, Black G, Berendt A, Craig A, Snow B, et al. Receptor-specific adhesion and clinical disease in Plasmodium falciparum. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997;57:389-98.
Rogerson SJ, Tembenu R, Dobano C, Plitt S, Taylor TE, Molyneux ME. Cytoadherence characteristics of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes from Malawian children with severe and uncomplicated malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999;61:467-72.
Traore B, Muanza K, Looareesuwan S, Supavej S, Khusmith S, Danis M, et al. Cytoadherence characteristics of Plasmodium falciparum isolates in Thailand using an in vitro human lung endothelial cells model. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000;62:38-44.
Udomsangpetch R, Reinhardt PH, Schollaardt T, Elliott JF, Kubes P, Ho M. Promiscuity of clinical Plasmodium falciparum isolates for multiple adhesion molecules under flow conditions. J Immunol. 1997;158:4358-64.
Al-Yaman F, Genton B, Mokela D, Raiko A, Kati S, Rogerson S, et al. Human cerebral malaria: Lack of significant association between erythrocyte rosetting and disease severity. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1995;89:55-8.
Doumbo OK, Thera MA, Kone AK, Raza A, Tempest LJ, Lyke KE, et al. High levels of Plasmodium falciparum rosetting in all clinical forms of severe malaria in African children. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009;81:987-93.
Kun JF, Schmidt-Ott RJ, Lehman LG, Lell B, Luckner D, Greve B, et al. Merozoite surface antigen 1 and 2 genotypes and rosetting of Plasmodium falciparum in severe and mild malaria in Lambarene, Gabon. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1998;92:110-4.
Normark J, Nilsson D, Ribacke U, Winter G, Moll K, Wheelock CE, et al. PfEMP1-DBL1alpha amino acid motifs in severe disease states of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104:15835-40.
Rowe A, Obeiro J, Newbold CI, Marsh K. Plasmodium falciparum rosetting is associated with malaria severity in Kenya. Infect Immun. 1995;63:2323-6.
Treutiger CJ, Hedlund I, Helmby H, Carlson J, Jepson A, Twumasi P, et al. Rosette formation in Plasmodium falciparum isolates and anti-rosette activity of sera from Gambians with cerebral or uncomplicated malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1992;46:503-10.
Pain A, Ferguson DJ, Kai O, Urban BC, Lowe B, Marsh K, et al. Platelet-mediated clumping of Plasmodium falciparuminfected erythrocytes is a common adhesive phenotype and is associated with severe malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98:1805-10.
Clark IA, Cowden WB. The pathophysiology of falciparum malaria. Pharmacol Ther. 2003;99:221-60.
Tripathi AK, Sullivan DJ, Stins MF. Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes increase intercellular adhesion molecule 1 expression on brain endothelium through NFkappaB. Infect Immun. 2006;74:3262-70.
Kyes SA, Kraemer SM, Smith JD. Antigenic variation in Plasmodium falciparum: Gene organization and regulation of the var multigene family. Eukaryot Cell. 2007;6:1511-20.
Roberts DJ, Craig AG, Berendt AR, Pinches R, Nash G, Marsh K, et al. Rapid switching to multiple antigenic and adhesive phenotypes in malaria. Nature. 1992;357:689-92.
Falk N, Kaestli M, Qi W, Ott M, Baea K, Cortes A, et al. Analysis of Plasmodium falciparum var genes expressed in children from Papua New Guinea. J Infect Dis. 2009;200:347-56.
Kyriacou HM, Stone GN, Challis RJ, Raza A, Lyke KE, Thera MA, et al. Differential var gene transcription in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from patients with cerebral malaria compared to hyperparasitaemia. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 2006;150:211-8.
Rottmann M, Lavstsen T, Mugasa JP, Kaestli M, Jensen AT, Muller D, et al. Differential expression of var gene groups is associated with morbidity caused by Plasmodium falciparum infection in Tanzanian children. Infect Immun. 2006;74:3904-11.
Kaestli M, Cockburn IA, Cortes A, Baea K, Rowe JA, Beck HP. Virulence of malaria is associated with differential expression of Plasmodium falciparum var gene subgroups in a case-control study. J Infect Dis. 2006;193:1567-74.
Kirchgatter K, Portillo Hdel A. Association of severe noncerebral Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Brazil with expressed PfEMP1 DBL1 alpha sequences lacking cysteine residues. Mol Med. 2002;8:16-23.
Bull PC, Kortok M, Kai O, Ndungu F, Ross A, Lowe BS, et al. Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes: Agglutination by diverse Kenyan plasma is associated with severe disease and young host age. J Infect Dis. 2000;182:252-9.
García F, Cebrian M, Dgedge M, Casademont J, Bedini JL, Neves O, et al. Endothelial cell activation in muscle biopsy samples is related to clinical severity in human cerebral malaria. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:475-83.
Turner GD, Ly VC, Nguyen TH, Tran TH, Nguyen HP, Bethell D, et al. Systemic endothelial activation occurs in both mild and severe malaria. Correlating dermal microvascular endothelial cell phenotype and soluble cell adhesion molecules with disease severity. Am J Pathol. 1998;152:1477-87.
Combes V, Taylor TE, Juhan-Vague I, Mege JL, Mwenechanya J, Tembo M, et al. Circulating endothelial microparticles in Malawian children with severe falciparum malaria complicated with coma. JAMA. 2004;291:2542-4.
Conroy AL, Phiri H, Hawkes M, Glover S, Mallewa M, Seydel KB, et al. Endothelium-based biomarkers are associated with cerebral malaria in Malawian children: A retrospective case-control study. PloS One. 2010;5:e15291.
Dietmann A, Lackner P, Helbok R, Spora K, Issifou S, Lell B, et al. Opposed circulating plasma levels of endothelin-1 and C-type natriuretic peptide in children with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Malar J. 2008;7:253.
Hollestelle MJ, Donkor C, Mantey EA, Chakravorty SJ, Craig A, Akoto AO, et al. von Willebrand factor propeptide in malaria: Evidence of acute endothelial cell activation. Br J Haematol. 2006;133:562-9.
Yeo TW, Lampah DA, Gitawati R, Tjitra E, Kenangalem E, Piera K, et al. Angiopoietin-2 is associated with decreased endothelial nitric oxide and poor clinical outcome in severe falciparum malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:17097-102.
Viebig NK, Wulbrand U, Forster R, Andrews KT, Lanzer M, Knolle PA. Direct activation of human endothelial cells by Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Infect Immun. 2005;73:3271-7.
Taoufiq Z, Gay F, Balvanyos J, Ciceron L, Tefit M, Lechat P, et al. Rho kinase inhibition in severe malaria: Thwarting parasite-induced collateral damage to endothelia. J Infect Dis. 2008;197:1062-73.
Susomboon P, Maneerat Y, Dekumyoy P, Kalambaheti T, Iwagami M, Komaki-Yasuda K, et al. Down-regulation of tight junction mRNAs in human endothelial cells co-cultured with Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Parasitol Int. 2006;55:107-12.
Pino P, Vouldoukis I, Kolb JP, Mahmoudi N, Desportes-Livage I, Bricaire F, et al. Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocyte adhesion induces caspase activation and apoptosis in human endothelial cells. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:1283-90.
Toure FS, Ouwe-Missi-Oukem-Boyer O, Bisvigou U, Moussa O, Rogier C, Pino P, et al. Apoptosis: A potential triggering mechanism of neurological manifestation in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Parasite Immunol. 2008;30:47-51.
Jain V, Armah HB, Tongren JE, Ned RM, Wilson NO, Crawford S, et al. Plasma IP-10, apoptotic and angiogenic factors associated with fatal cerebral malaria in India. Malar J. 2008;7:83.
Kern P, Dietrich M, Hemmer C, Wellinghausen N. Increased levels of soluble Fas ligand in serum in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Infect Immun. 2000;68:3061-3.
Pino P, Vouldoukis I, Dugas N, Hassani-Loppion G, Dugas B, Mazier D. Redox-dependent apoptosis in human endothelial cells after adhesion of Plasmodium falciparuminfected erythrocytes. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;1010:582-6.
Clough B, Atilola FA, Pasvoi G. The role of rosetting in the multiplication of Plasmodium falciparum: Rosette formation neither enhances nor targets parasite invasion into uninfected red cells. Br J Haematol. 1998;100:99-104.
Deans AM, Rowe JA. Plasmodium falciparum: Rosettes do not protect merozoites from invasion-inhibitory antibodies. Exp Parasitol. 2006;112:269-73.
Cockburn IA, Mackinnon MJ, O’Donnell A, Allen SJ, Moulds JM, Baisor M, et al. A human complement receptor 1 polymorphism that reduces Plasmodium falciparum rosetting confers protection against severe malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101:272-7.
Biswas AK, Hafiz A, Banerjee B, Kim KS, Datta K, Chitnis CE. Plasmodium falciparum uses gC1qR/HABP1/p32 as a receptor to bind to vascular endothelium and for plateletmediated clumping. PLoS Pathog. 2007;3:1271-80.
Das BS, Nanda NK. Evidence for erythrocyte lipid peroxidation in acute falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1999;93:58-62.
Greve B, Lehman LG, Lell B, Luckner D, Schmidt-Ott R, Kremsner PG. High oxygen radical production is associated with fast parasite clearance in children with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:1584-6.
Schwarzer E, Kuhn H, Valente E, Arese P. Malaria parasitized erythrocytes and hemozoin nonenzymatically generate large amounts of hydroxy fatty acids that inhibit monocyte functions. Blood. 2003;101:722-8.
Pabón A, Carmona J, Burgos LC, Blair S. Oxidative stress in patients with non-complicated malaria. Clin Biochem. 2003;36:71-8.
Das BS, Patnaik JK, Mohanty S, Mishra SK, Mohanty D, Satpathy SK, et al. Plasma antioxidants and lipid peroxidation products in falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1993;49:720-5.
Griffiths MJ, Ndungu F, Baird KL, Muller DP, Marsh K, Newton CR. Oxidative stress and erythrocyte damage in Kenyan children with severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Br J Haematol. 2001;113:486-91.
Nanda NK, Das BS. Presence of pro-oxidants in plasma of patients suffering from falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2000;94:684-8.
Gyan B, Troyeblomberg M, Perlmann P, Bjorkman A. Human monocytes cultured with and without interferongamma inhibit Plasmodium falciparum parasite growth in vitro via secretion of reactive nitrogen intermediates. Parasitol Immunol. 1994;16:371-75.
Mellouk S, Hoffman SL, Liu ZZ, de la Vega P, Billiar TR, Nussler AK. Nitric oxide-mediated antiplasmodial activity in human and murine hepatocytes induced by gamma interferon and the parasite itself: Enhancement by exogenous tetrahydrobiopterin. Infect Immun. 1994;62:4043-6.
Skorokhod OA, Schwarzer E, Ceretto M, Arese P. Malarial pigment haemozoin, IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and LPS do not stimulate expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and production of nitric oxide in immuno-purified human monocytes. Malar J. 2007;6:73.
Al Yaman FM, Mokela D, Genton B, Rockett KA, Alpers MP, Clark IA. Association between serum levels of reactive nitrogen intermediates and coma in children with cerebral malaria in Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1996;90:270-3.
Maneerat Y, Viriyavejakul P, Punpoowong B, Jones M, Wilairatana P, Pongponratn E, et al. Inducible nitric oxide synthase expression is increased in the brain in fatal cerebral malaria. Histopathology. 2000;37:269-77.
Gyan B, Kurtzhals JA, Akanmori BD, Ofori M, Goka BQ, Hviid L, et al. Elevated levels of nitric oxide and low levels of haptoglobin are associated with severe malarial anaemia in African children. Acta Trop. 2002;83:133-40.
Keller CC, Kremsner PG, Hittner JB, Misukonis MA, Weinberg JB, Perkins DJ. Elevated nitric oxide production in children with malarial anemia: hemozoin-induced nitric oxide synthase type 2 transcripts and nitric oxide in blood mononuclear cells. Infect Immun. 2004;72:4868-73.
Agbenyega T, Angus B, Bedu-Addo G, Baffoe-Bonnie B, Griffin G, Vallance P, et al. Plasma nitrogen oxides and blood lactate concentrations in Ghanaian children with malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1997;91:298-302.
Dondorp AM, Planche T, de Bel EE, Angus BJ, Chotivanich KT, Silamut K, et al. Nitric oxides in plasma, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid in patients with severe falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;59:497-502.
Taylor AM, Day NP, Sinh DX, Loc PP, Mai TT, Chau TT, et al. Reactive nitrogen intermediates and outcome in severe adult malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1998;92:170-5.
Anstey NM, Weinberg JB, Hassanali MY, Mwaikambo ED, Manyenga D, Misukonis MA, et al. Nitric oxide in Tanzanian children with malaria: Inverse relationship between malaria severity and nitric oxide production/nitric oxide synthase type 2 expression. J Exp Med. 1996;184:557-67.
Chiwakata CB, Hemmer CJ, Dietrich M. High levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA are associated with increased monocyte counts in blood and have a beneficial role in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Infect Immun. 2000;68:394-9.
Lopansri BK, Anstey NM, Weinberg JB, Stoddard GJ, Hobbs MR, Levesque MC, et al. Low plasma arginine concentrations in children with cerebral malaria and decreased nitric oxide production. Lancet. 2003;361:676-8.
Yeo TW, Lampah DA, Gitawati R, Tjitra E, Kenangalem E, McNeil YR, et al. Impaired nitric oxide bioavailability and L-arginine reversible endothelial dysfunction in adults with falciparum malaria. J Exp Med. 2007;204:2693-704.
Coban C, Ishii KJ, Horii T, Akira S. Manipulation of host innate immune responses by the malaria parasite. Trends Microbiol. 2007;15:271-8.
Gimenez F, Barraud de Lagerie S, Fernandez C, Pino P, Mazier D. Tumor necrosis factor alpha in the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2003;60:1623-35.
Odeh M. The role of tumour necrosis factor-alpha in the pathogenesis of complicated falciparum malaria. Cytokine. 2001;14:11-8.
Kern P, Hemmer CJ, van Damme J, Gruss HJ, Dietrich M. Elevated tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6 serum levels as markers for complicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Am J Med. 1989 87:139-43.
Kwiatkowski D, Hill AV, Sambou I, Twumasi P, Castracane J, Manogue KR, et al. TNF concentration in fatal cerebral, non-fatal cerebral, and uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Lancet. 1990;336:1201-4.
Nyakundi JN, Warn P, Newton C, Mumo J, Jephthah- Ochola J. Serum tumour necrosis factor in children suffering from Plasmodium falciparum infection in Kilifi District, Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1994;88:667-70.
John CC, Opika-Opoka R, Byarugaba J, Idro R, Boivin MJ. Low levels of RANTES are associated with mortality in children with cerebral malaria. J Infect Dis. 2006;194:837-45.
D’Ombrain MC, Robinson LJ, Stanisic DI, Taraika J, Bernard N, Michon P, et al. Association of early interferongamma production with immunity to clinical malaria: A longitudinal study among Papua New Guinean children. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:1380-7.
Ho M, Schollaardt T, Snape S, Looareesuwan S, Suntharasamai P, White NJ. Endogenous interleukin-10 modulates proinflammatory response in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Infect Dis. 1998;178:520-5.
Othoro C, Lal AA, Nahlen B, Koech D, Orago AS, Udhayakumar V. A low interleukin-10 tumor necrosis factoralpha ratio is associated with malaria anemia in children residing in a holoendemic malaria region in western Kenya. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:279-82.
Chaiyaroj SC, Rutta AS, Muenthaisong K, Watkins P, Na Ubol M, Looareesuwan S. Reduced levels of transforming growth factor-beta1, interleukin-12 and increased migration inhibitory factor are associated with severe malaria. Acta Trop. 2004;89:319-27.
Ochiel DO, Awandare GA, Keller CC, Hittner JB, Kremsner PG, Weinberg JB, et al. Differential regulation of beta-chemokines in children with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Infect Immun. 2005;73:4190-7.
Mackintosh CL, Beeson JG, Marsh K. Clinical features and pathogenesis of severe malaria. Trends Parasitol. 2004;20:597-603.
Maguire GP, Handojo T, Pain MC, Kenangalem E, Price RN, Tjitra E, et al. Lung injury in uncomplicated and severe falciparum malaria: A longitudinal study in Papua, Indonesia. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:1966-74.
Giraldo C, Blair S, Tobón A. Complicaciones pulmonares en malaria. Infectio. 2004;8:279-92.
Martínez O. Sindrome de dificultad respiratoria aguda en malaria por P. vivax. Acta Médica Colombiana. 1996;21:146-50.
Lang F, Lang PA, Lang KS, Brand V, Tanneur V, Duranton C, et al. Channel-induced apoptosis of infected host cellsthe case of malaria. Pflugers Arch. 2004;448:319-24.
Angus BJ, Chotivanich K, Udomsangpetch R, White NJ. In vivo removal of malaria parasites from red blood cells without their destruction in acute falciparum malaria. Blood. 1997; 90:2037-40.
Dondorp AM, Angus BJ, Chotivanich K, Silamut K, Ruangveerayuth R, Hardeman MR, et al. Red blood cell deformability as a predictor of anemia in severe falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999;60:733-7.
Groux H, Gysin J. Opsonization as an effector mechanism in human protection against asexual blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum: Functional role of IgG subclasses. Res Immunol. 1990;141:529-42.
Waitumbi JN, Opollo MO, Muga RO, Misore AO, Stoute JA. Red cell surface changes and erythrophagocytosis in children with severe Plasmodium falciparum anemia. Blood. 2000;95:1481-6.
Ekvall H. Malaria and anemia. Curr Opin Hematol. 2003;10:108-14.
Wickramasinghe SN, Abdalla SH. Blood and bone marrow changes in malaria. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. 2000;13:277-99.
Stoute JA, Odindo AO, Owuor BO, Mibei EK, Opollo MO, Waitumbi JN. Loss of red blood cell-complement regulatory proteins and increased levels of circulating immune complexes are associated with severe malarial anemia. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:522-5.
Weatherall DJ, Miller LH, Baruch DI, Marsh K, Doumbo OK, Casals-Pascual C, et al. Malaria and the red cell. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2002:35-57.
Abdalla SH. Hematopoiesis in human malaria. Blood Cells. 1990;16:401-16.
Bachmann A, Esser C, Petter M, Predehl S, von Kalckreuth V, Schmiedel S, et al. Absence of erythrocyte sequestration and lack of multicopy gene family expression in Plasmodium falciparum from a splenectomized malaria patient. PloS One. 2009;4:e7459.
Munasinghe A, Ileperuma M, Premawansa G, Handunnetti S, Premawansa S. Spleen modulation of cytoadherence properties of Plasmodium falciparum. Scand J Infect Dis. 2009;41:538-9.
Safeukui I, Correas JM, Brousse V, Hirt D, Deplaine G, Mule S, et al. Retention of Plasmodium falciparum ringinfected erythrocytes in the slow, open microcirculation of the human spleen. Blood. 2008;112:2520-8.
Ejigiri I, Sinnis P. Plasmodium sporozoite-host interactions from the dermis to the hepatocyte. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2009;12:401-7.
Sturm A, Heussler V. Live and let die: Manipulation of host hepatocytes by exoerythrocytic Plasmodium parasites. Med Microbiol Immunol. 2007;196:127-33.
Guha M, Kumar S, Choubey V, Maity P, Bandyopadhyay U. Apoptosis in liver during malaria: Role of oxidative stress and implication of mitochondrial pathway. Faseb J. 2006;20:1224-6.
Sturm A, Amino R, van de Sand C, Regen T, Retzlaff S, Rennenberg A, et al. Manipulation of host hepatocytes by the malaria parasite for delivery into liver sinusoids. Science. 2006;313:1287-90.
Baer K, Klotz C, Kappe SH, Schnieder T, Frevert U. Release of hepatic Plasmodium yoelii merozoites into the pulmonary microvasculature. PLoS Pathog. 2007;3:e171.
Algunos artículos similares:
- Ana María Vásquez, Felipe Sanín, Luis Gonzalo Álvarez, Alberto Tobón, Alexandra Ríos, Silvia Blair, Estudio piloto de la eficacia y de los efectos sobre los gametocitos del esquema artesunato-mefloquina-primaquina para la malaria por Plasmodium falciparum , Biomédica: Vol. 29 Núm. 2 (2009)
- Amanda Maestre, Jaime Carmona-Fonseca, Amanda Maestre, Alta frecuencia de mutaciones puntuales en pfcrt de Plasmodium falciparum y emergencia de nuevos haplotipos mutantes en Colombia , Biomédica: Vol. 28 Núm. 4 (2008)
- Silvia Blair, Ana Mercedes Rada, Carolina Moreno, Exitoso cultivo in vitro de gametocitos de Plasmodium falciparum , Biomédica: Vol. 28 Núm. 4 (2008)
- Jaime Carmona-Fonseca, Eliana Arango, Silvia Blair, Gametocitemia en malaria por Plasmodium falciparum tratada con amodiaquina o artesunato , Biomédica: Vol. 28 Núm. 2 (2008)
- Silvia Blair, Eliana Arango, Jaime Carmona Fonseca, Susceptibilidad in vitro de aislamientos colombianos de Plasmodium falciparum a diferentes antipalúdicos , Biomédica: Vol. 28 Núm. 2 (2008)
- John Alexander Galindo, Fabio Aníbal Cristiano, Angélica Knudson, Rubén Santiago Nicholls, Ángela Patricia Guerra, Mutaciones puntuales en los genes dhfr y dhps de Plasmodium falciparum de tres regiones endémicas , Biomédica: Vol. 30 Núm. 1 (2010)
- Nohora Marcela Mendoza, Marisol García, Liliana Jazmín Cortés, Claudia Vela, Rigoberto Erazo, Pilar Pérez, Olga Lucía Ospina, Javier Darío Burgos, Evaluación de dos pruebas rápidas [NOW® ICT Malaria Pf/Pv y OptiMAL®] para el diagnóstico de paludismo en Tumaco, Colombia , Biomédica: Vol. 27 Núm. 4 (2007)
- Angélica Knudson, Rubén Santiago Nicholls, Ángela Patricia Guerra, Ricardo Sánchez, Perfiles clínicos del paludismo no complicado por Plasmodium falciparum en Córdoba, Colombia , Biomédica: Vol. 27 Núm. 4 (2007)
- Adriana Pabón, Gonzalo Álvarez, Jorge Yánez, Carlos Céspedes, Yensa Rodríguez, Ángela Restrepo, Silvia Blair, Evaluación de la prueba rápida inmunocromatográfica Binax NOW® ICT Pf/Pv para el diagnóstico del paludismo en un área endémica de Colombia , Biomédica: Vol. 27 Núm. 2 (2007)
- Vanihamín Domínguez, Itzen Aguiñiga, Leticia Moreno, Beatriz Torres, Edelmiro Santiago-Osorio, El caseinato de sodio incrementa número de linfocitos B en ratones , Biomédica: Vol. 37 Núm. 4 (2017)
| Estadísticas de artículo | |
|---|---|
| Vistas de resúmenes | |
| Vistas de PDF | |
| Descargas de PDF | |
| Vistas de HTML | |
| Otras vistas | |
